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Öğe The 2 x 2 Achievement Goals in Sport and Physical Activity Contexts: A Meta-Analytic Test of Context, Gender, Culture, and Socioeconomic Status Differences and Analysis of Motivations, Regulations, Affect, Effort, and Physical Activity Correlates(Mdpi, 2020) Lochbaum, Marc; Zanatta, Thais; Kazak, ZisanApproach-avoidance achievement goals are studied extensively in the context of competitive sports and physical activity, including leisure and physical education. Building upon past meta-analyses, the purpose of this quantitative review was to provide basic descriptive data, estimated means for testing of several research questions (i.e., context, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status), and meta-analyzing outcome correlates (i.e., self-determination constructs, affect, effort, and physical activity). A total of 116 studies up to 1 December 2018, met inclusion criteria. These 116 studies, totaling a sample size of 43,133 participants (M sample size = 347.85 + 359.36), from 22 countries with 92.7% of samples, are drawn from participants less than 30 years of mean age. From the 116 unique studies, nearly half (49.6%) were from a sport context and the rest from leisure-time physical activity (PA) (19.4%) and physical education (PE) (31.0%) contexts. A number of different analyses were conducted to examine our research questions. Support was found for several of our research questions: the mastery-approach goal was endorsed more than all the other goals, while sport participants endorsed the performance-approach goal more than PA and PE groups; females endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal more than males; more culturally individualistic countries endorsed the mastery-approach goal; and countries fromlower socioeconomic and interdependent countries endorsed the mastery-avoidance goal than higher socioeconomic and independent countries. Concerning, the meta-analyzed correlates, most relationships were hypothesized through the performance-approach goal, and both avoidance goals appeared to be too similar in relationships with the correlates raising theoretical concerns. Overall, the mastery-approach goals had the most meaningful biased corrected effect size values (r(c)) with the outcome correlates, such as relative autonomy (0.47), intrinsic motivation (0.52), effort (0.40), positive affect (0.42), physical activity intent (0.38). Based on the present and past meta-analytic results, the 2 x 2 achievement goals as currently measured was questioned. Future research suggestions included fundamental questionnaire issues, the need for latent profile analysis or other more advanced statistics, and whether the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework is the most appropriate framework in physical activity contexts.Öğe The 3 x 2 Achievement Goals in the Education, Sport, and Occupation Literatures: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis(MDPI, 2023) Lochbaum, Marc; Sisneros, Cassandra; Kazak, ZisanAchievement goal theory has been a dominant motivation framework since the 1980s. The 3 x 2 achievement goal framework emerged in the literature in 2011. We aimed to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis following the PRISMA guidelines of the 3 x 2 achievement goal research in education, sport, and occupation settings. We retrieved articles from searching EBSCOhost and Google Scholar platforms. Eligible articles contained the 3 x 2 achievement goal in education, sport, or occupation, were published in a peer-reviewed journal, and provided mean data or correlate data. We tested hypotheses concerned with (1) the overall pattern of achievement goal endorsement, (2) achievement goal differences by domain (education, sport) and compulsory nature of the domains or sub-domains, and (3) achievement goal relationships with correlates (e.g., learning strategies, motivations, performance). After screening, 56 articles met all inclusion criteria, providing 58 samples across education (n = 44), sport (n = 10), and occupation (n = 4) settings with 35,031 unique participants from 15 countries. Participants endorsed the task- and self-approach goals more than the counterpart avoidance goals, other-avoidance goals more than other-approach goals, and the intercorrelations and reliability coefficients were acceptable. Minimal impact results from examining within and across study bias statistics. Of importance, the domain (i.e., education, sport) and the compulsory nature of the domain or sub-domains (i.e., primary-secondary education, sport) moderated goal endorsement (group mixed-effects p < 0.05, g values medium to very large). These groupings also moderated the other goal differences. Concerning our correlates analyses, most meta-analyzed correlations among the achievement goals and correlates were small in meaningfulness with the largest correlations (0.30-0.42) between the approach goals merged and the task- and self-approach goals and facilitative learning strategies and desired motivations. In conclusion, the 3 x 2 achievement goals literature is diverse. Furthering the study and application of this model requires overcoming inherent limitations (i.e., consistent response scale sets), teasing out differences between the task- and self-goals, measuring performance outcomes, and cross-cultural collaborations.Öğe The Coach-Athlete Relationship and Self-Talk in Turkish Athletes(Mdpi, 2021) Ada, Elif Nilay; Comoutos, Nikos; Ahmad, Hasan; Yildiz, Rabia; Jowett, Sophia; Kazak, ZisanBackground: The first purpose of the study was to evaluate the validity and reliability of the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sports (ASTQS) in the Turkish language and the secondary purpose was to examine the relationship between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and athletes' self-talk. Methods: 477 athletes (females = 252, males = 225) completed the Turkish versions of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) and the ASTQS. Results: ASTQS showed good psychometric properties in the Turkish language. Findings on the construct validity of the scale were consistent with the original scale's 8-factor structure. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranged from 0.65 to 0.91. Furthermore, path analysis results showed that closeness had a direct effect on disengagement, psych-up, and anxiety control. The commitment had a direct effect on somatic fatigue, and complementarity had a direct effect on worry, confidence, and instruction. Conclusions: Finally, the results from the present study indicated that the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire provided a reliable and valid measure for Turkish athletes. The results revealed the importance of the coach-athlete relationship in sport and its' role in shaping athletes' self-talk.Öğe Cross-Cultural Adaptation of the Turkish and Kuwaiti Teacher-Student Relationship Questionnaire in Physical Education (TSRQ- PE Teacher Version): Testing for Measurement Invariance(Mdpi, 2021) Ada, Elif Nilay; Ahmad, Hasan; Uzun, N. Bilge; Jowett, Sophia; Kazak, ZisanBackground: Within the 3Cs (closeness, commitment, and complementarity) theoretical framework of the quality of two-person relationships, a coach-athlete relationship quality questionnaire (CART-Q) was developed and validated to assess the nature of the coach-athlete relationship. in this study, a modified version of the CART-Q for physical education (PE) was adapted to assess the teacher-student relationship quality in the PE context in Turkey and Kuwait. The purpose of this study was to examine the factorial validity of the teacher-student relationship quality questionnaire (TSRQ-PE) within a sample of Turkish and Kuwaiti physical education teachers. Methods: Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) was used to test the measurement of cultural invariance between these two groups. A total of 175 teachers from Turkey (n = 73) and Kuwait (n = 102) completed the TPRQ-PE. Results: MGCFA supported the factorial validity of the TPRQ-PE in a three first-order factor model across the two countries. Overall, these results add evidence to the psychometric properties of the TPRQ-PE and suggest that this instrument can be applied to measure the quality of the teacher-student relationship within Turkey and Kuwait, although caution may be required when applied to drawing comparisons between these two counties. Conclusions: The results of the present study could help physical educators and researchers in this field to understand the reasons and methods that lead to a quality teacher-student relationship.Öğe Flourishing in Young Adults: The Role of Achievement Goals, Participation Motivation, and Self-Perception Levels in Physical Activity Contexts(Mdpi, 2021) Kazak, Zisan; Lochbaum, Marc; Canpolat, Ayse MelihaThis study aims to determine how achievement goals, participation motivation and self-perception levels in physical activity environments relate to the flourishing of young adults. The general purpose of the study was also to examine differences in selected variables of young adults flourishing in physical activity environments. To achieve our aims, the recruited sample consisted of 580 young adult exercisers ranging in age from 18 to 40 years from fitness centers in Izmir, Turkey. Participants completed a personal information form, the Flourishing Scale, the 2 x 2 Achievement Goals Questionnaire for Sport (2 x 2 AGQ-S), the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS), and the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ). We examined correlations, regressions, and path models with our measured variables. Flourishing relates significantly (p < 0.001) and positively with global self-esteem, the mastery-approach goal, intrinsic motivation, and global physical self-concept. Our path model suggested that the mastery-approach goal, intrinsic motivation, and global self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between global physical self-concept and flourishing. Our findings help to inform alternative approaches for cultivating exercisers' flourishing. However, knowledge on how to support and develop flourishing is still under-researched in sport and exercise settings.Öğe The Mediator Role of Sport Competence and Physical Condition in the Motivational Climate and Personal-Social Responsibility in Physical Education(Sage Publications Inc, 2021) Ada, Elif Nilay; Serin, Ali Haydar; Pehlivan, Zekai; Cepikkurt, Fatma; Ahmad, Hasan; Kazak, ZisanThis study aimed to separately examine the mediator role of two different variables in the relationship between perceived motivational climate and personal-social responsibility in physical education lessons. A total of 406 students (M-age = 12.91, SD = 1.01), 217 girls (M-age = 12.88, SD = 1.03) and 189 boys (M-age = 12.93, SD = 0.99), from the 6th, 7th, and 8th grades attended the study. In the research, the Learning and Performance Orientations in Physical Education Classes Questionnaire, the Personal-Social Responsibility Questionnaire, and Physical Self-Perception Inventory for Children (physical condition and sport competence) were used. To realize the purpose of the research, the measurement models were first tested using the structural equation model; next, multiple regression analysis applications were made. Mediation analysis was carried out separately for the learning and performance climate dimensions for the perceived motivational climate questionnaire. For this purpose, the mediating effect of physical condition and sport competence in the relationship between each perceived motivational climate dimension and personal-social responsibility, was examined. In the analyzes, it was found that neither learning nor performance dimensions of perceived motivational climate had any mediating effect on the relationship between personal-social responsibility. However, the perceived learning climate could moderately predict personal-social responsibility whereas the perceived performance climate could not. As a result, it can be said that the most important effect on personal-social responsibility in physical education lessons belongs to the student learning orientation factor which belongs only to the perceived learning climate. Since the student's sport competence or physical condition is not effective in influencing personal-social responsibility, it has become necessary for physical education teachers to make efforts to create a learning-oriented climate that is associated with positive outcomes.Öğe Profiles of Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Settings: An Examination of Differences in Contextual Motivation, Affect, and Achievement Goals(Mdpi, 2018) Kazak, ZisanUnderstanding leisure-time physical activity is vital for a healthy world. It is well known that physical activity has positive effects on psychological health, but further evidence is required to ascertain how different environments influence positive behavioral outcomes. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the differences in contextual motivation, affect, and achievement goals according to profiles of basic psychological needs in adult exercisers. The sample consisted of 401 young adult exercisers ranging in age from 18 to 40 years from fitness centers in Izmir, Turkey. Participants completed measures of basic needs satisfaction, exercise motivations, trait affect, and achievement goals. Hierarchical cluster analysis, k-mean cluster analysis, multivariate analysis of variance, and post hoc analyses were performed. The results in this study revealed that the participants in Cluster 1, who were labeled as very satisfied, had higher scores than the other clusters in terms of positive behavioral outcomes. The results of this study revealed that greater satisfaction of the basic psychological needs leads to positive behavioral consequences in exercise contexts.Öğe Relationships Between Dispositional Flow, Motivational Climate, and Self-Talk in Physical Education Classes(Sagamore Publ Llc, 2019) Ada, Elif Nilay; Comoutos, Nikos; Karamitrou, Aristea; Kazak, ZisanThis cross-sectional study explored the relationships between dispositional flow, motivational climate, and self-talk in physical education. Six hundred forty-eight participants completed the Dispositional Flow Scale for Physical Education, the Learning and Performance Orientation in Physical Education Classes Questionnaire, and the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire for Physical Education. The results revealed that dispositional flow subscales were negatively related to students' negative self-talk dimensions and positively related to students' positive self-talk dimensions. Moreover, significant relationships emerged between perceived motivational climate subscales and students' self-talk dimensions. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that the dispositional flow subscale of unambiguous feedback and the subscale of motivational climate of students' learning orientation significantly predicted students' positive self-talk dimensions (positively) and negative self-talk dimensions (negatively). In contrast, the motivational climate subscales of students' worry about mistakes significantly and positively predicted students' negative self-talk dimensions. Finally, significant differences were found in study variables as a function of gender, leisure-time sport participation, sport type, and grade level. Overall, these correlational findings stress the importance of dispositional flow and perceived motivational climate in physical education as potential factors that shape students' self-talk.Öğe The Validation of Direct and Meta Versions of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (ArCART-Q) in the Arabic Language: Their Relationship to Athlete's Satisfaction with Individual Performance(Mdpi, 2021) Ahmad, Hasan; Ada, Elif Nilay; Jowett, Sophia; Alabduljader, Kholoud; Kazak, ZisanBackground: The first aim of this study is to achieve validation of the direct and meta-perspective versions of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire in the Arabic language, and the second aim of this study is to determine the quality of the coach-athlete relationship to athlete' satisfaction with individual performance according to sport participation type, sport duration, and sport achievement. Methods: A total of 259 athletes with a mean age of 22 years were recruited from various athletic clubs in Kuwait. Participants completed The Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire and The Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire. For this study, the factorial structure of the Arabic version of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) was used in Kuwait and was prepared with both direct and meta perspectives. Results: The results of this study show evidence of the validity of the direct and meta-perspective Arabic versions of the CART-Q. The fit indices of the data collected by direct-method were as follows (x(2)/df = 2.21; RMSEA = 0.06; CFI = 0.98; GFI = 0.95; AGFI = 0.91); data for the meta-method were as follows (x(2)/df = 2.32; RMSEA = 0.08; CFI = 0.99; GFI = 0.93; AGFI = 0.87). Female participants have obtained higher means than males from all questionnaires. Conclusions: The results of the present study could help coaches and athletes from the Middle East to understand the reasons and methods that lead to a quality coach-athlete relationship.
